A series of handbooks prepared for Peace Conference British delegates to provide information about several countries. This volume is dedicated to British Somaliland and Sokotra, it contains historical, geographical, social, and economic notes.
Created by the Historical Section of the Foreign Office, Great Britain
Published by H.M. Stationery off., London, 1920.
Handbooks prepared under the Direction of the Historical Section of the Foreign Office, No. 97
EDITORIAL NOTE
In the spring of 1917 the Foreign Office, in connexion with the preparation which they were making for the work of the Peace Conference, established a special section whose duty it should be to provide the British Delegates to the Peace Conference with information in the most convenient form—geographical, economic, historical, social, religious, and political—respecting the different countries, districts, islands, &c., with which they might have to deal. In addition, volumes were prepared on certain general subjects, mostly of a historical nature, concerning which it appeared that a special study would be useful.
The historical information was compiled by trained writers on historical subjects, who (in most cages) gave their services without any remuneration. For the geographical sections valuable assistance was given by the Intelligence Division (Naval Staff) of the Admiralty; and for the economic sections, by the War Trade Intelligence Department, which had been established by the Foreign Office. Of the maps accompanying the series, some were prepared by the above-mentioned department of the Admiralty, but the bulk of them were the work of the Geographical Section of the General Staff (Military Intelligence Division) of the War Office.
Now that the Conference has nearly completed its task, the Foreign Office, in response to numerous inquiries and requests, has decided to issue the books for public use, believing that they will be useful to students of history, politics, economics, and foreign affairs, to publicists generally, and to businessmen and travelers. It is hardly necessary to say that some of the subjects dealt with in the series have not in fact come under discussion at the Peace Conference; but, as the books treating of them contain valuable information, it has been thought advisable to include them.
It must be understood that, although the series of volumes was prepared under the authority, and is now issued with the sanction, of the Foreign Office, that Office is not to be regarded as guaranteeing the accuracy of every statement which they contain or as identifying itself with all the opinions expressed in the several volumes; the books were not prepared in the Foreign Office itself, but are in the nature of information provided for the Foreign Office and the British Delegation.
The books are now published, with a few exceptions, substantially as they were issued for the use of the delegates. No attempt has been made to bring them up to date, for, in the first place, such a process would have entailed a great loss of time and a prohibitive expense; and, in the second, the political and other conditions of a great part of Europe and of the Nearer and Middle East are still unsettled and in such a state of flux that any attempt to describe them would have been incorrect or misleading. The books are therefore to be taken as describing, in general, antebellum conditions, though in a few cases, where it seemed specially desirable, the account has been brought down to a later date.
G. W. PROTHERO,
General Editor and formerly
Director of the Historical Section.
January 1920.
I. GEOGRAPHY PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL
BRITISH SOMALILAND
(1) Position and Frontiers
British Somaliland, which has an area of about 58,000 square miles, lies between 11° 27′ and 8° north latitude and 42° 35′ and 49° east longitude. It is bounded on the north by the Gulf of Aden, and on all other sides by land. The great sea-routes leading from the Suez Canal to the East, to Australasia, and to East Africa pass close to its coast. Its land frontiers march with Italian Somaliland in the east and southeast, with Abyssinia in the south-west, and with French Somaliland in the west. Almost all its boundaries are artificial lines, which have not been demarcated. In the east the line follows the meridian of 49° east (a short distance east of Bandar Ziada) from the sea to its junction with 9° north latitude. From this point the line goes south-west to the intersection of 48° east longitude with the eighth parallel of north latitude, which it then follows as far as 47° east longitude. It then turns west-north-west to Arran Arrhe (about 9° 4’N. and 43° 53′ E.), whence it goes in a north- north-westerly direction to the mountain of Jifa Medir (about 9° 42′ N. and 43° 15′ E.). Here it turns almost due north and runs for about ten miles to Mount Egu, next west-north-west for about the same distance along the Sau range, and then north-north-west via Biya Anot to Mount Somadu. From here it follows the caravan-route from Biya Kaboba to Zeila as far as Abaswein, and thence a straight line, passing a short distance west of Jallelo (about 10° 59′ N. and 43° E.), to Loyi Ada on the Gulf of Aden. The seasonal migrations of the nomadic tribes compel some of them to cross and recross the south and south-west frontiers at least once a year, but in practice this custom occasions little trouble.
(2) Surface, Coast, and River System
Surface
The southern part of the Protectorate consists of an elevated interior plateau, which rises gradually towards the north from an altitude of about 2,000 ft. to as much as 7,000 ft. This zone has an average width of about 35 miles in the west, 120 miles in the center, and nearly 200 miles in the east. The northern scarp of the plateau descends, precipitously in most places, to the maritime zone, a strip of territory varying in width from about 60-30 miles in the west to about 2 miles or under in the east. The drainage of the maritime zone is towards the Gulf of Aden: that of the plateau zone is towards the Webi Shebeli in the west, and towards the Nogal and Darror rivers in the southeast and east, all of which drain to the Indian Ocean.
Maritime Zone.-—The maritime zone consists in its northern part of the coastal plain, a sandy tract with some patches of alluvial soil, which are traversed by watercourses, generally dry, running from south to north. The plain slopes gradually upwards from the sea, rising to altitudes of 300-400 ft. at the foot of the mountains. It is bare in places, but for the most part is covered with coarse grasses and a sparse growth of stunted acacias and of kidthi, which furnish excellent browsing for camels and goats. In the alluvial patches there is as a rule a fairly dense growth of bushes and trees and also much land covered by the finer grasses, valuable for grazing. The width of the plain is about 60 miles at Zeila, 30 miles at Harag Jid, and 7 miles at Berbera, while farther to the east it varies from 2 miles to a few hundred yards.
The maritime mountains reach an altitude of 4,500 ft. in the south, but are much lower in the north. In the west they are low table-topped plateaux of black igneous rocks, diorite, diabase, &c., bearing a scanty crop of low bushes and tufts of grass. The edges of these plateaux are precipices 30 ft. high, below which are steep slopes of debris running down to watercourses, whose banks are clothed with bush and tree vegetation. East of Bulhar the hills are principally parallel ridges of limestone, running east and west; but some ridges and isolated peaks are of metamorphic rock (granites, syenites, quartzites, &c.). Between the ridges are undulating plains, traversed by broad, flat, dry watercourses running northward, with banks on which grow reeds, gurha thorn-trees, wabe trees, and hig. As a rule the watersheds are stony and are studded with low mimosa-trees, but there are stretches of coarse grass. East of Berbera these limestone ridges form a confused mass of broken hills, traversed by numerous watercourses running from south to north, and intersected by small plains. Much of this area is covered with trees or grass. The mountains narrow as the interior plateau trends to the north until, at the western end of the Warsangeli Mountains (about 10° 42′ N. and 47° E.), they form a narrow belt between the scarp of the interior plateau and the maritime plain. These eastern maritime mountains are undulating in the west, while farther to the east, towards the Italian frontier, they are very precipitous. They are traversed by numerous watercourses running from south to north, some of which, e. g. the Sabe and the Selid, are of considerable size and are believed to contain perennial running water in their upper reaches. West of the Warsangeli Mountains the maritime hills vary in height from a few hundred feet to 4,000 ft. or more; in the Warsangeli country they vary from about 700 ft. to about 1,500 ft. In some parts of the latter region they are wooded, with stunted trees, mostly acacias, near the coast.
The western part of the maritime zone is known as the Guban, while that portion which lies south of the volcanic hills near Bulhar, east of about 43° 30′ east and roughly following the 10th parallel of north latitude, is called the Ogo-Guban, and borders on the Ogo, an important grazing district of the interior plateau. The Ogo-Guban is composed of a series of terraces falling to the north, and traversed by narrow valleys. Stretches of grass on black vegetable soil are scattered among forests of cedars, acacias, aloes, &c., and furnish extensive grazing grounds.
Interior Plateau.—The plateau zone is in general a limestone country, in which isolated peaks and ridges, as well as some stretches of plain, are composed of Archaean rocks, or of sandstone, conglomerates, or igneous rocks. As has been stated, this plateau rises gently from the south and terminates, in most places, in a great precipitous scarp descending to the north. In the west of this zone little more than the scarp lies in British territory, and this consists of broken, hilly country rising to altitudes of about 4,500 to 5,500 ft. Farther to the east, between the Ogo and the Ogo-Guban, the altitude is about 4,500 ft., while east of that again it rises to about 7,000 ft. in what is generally known as the Golis range, though it appears as a range of hills only when viewed from the north. East of the Golis the scarp is again lower, though farther east again it rises to about 7,000 ft. in the Warsangeli country. From the crest of the scarp the plateau, descending to the south, merges into the Haud plain, for the most part by a gentle slope.
The northern part of this plateau zone consists of great grazing areas, of which the most important are the Ogo, the northern stretches of the Nogal and Warsangeli plateaux, and the upper part of the Darror valley. All of these, except the last, are fairly well wooded with cedars, euphorbias, acacias of many species, figs, &c., interspersed with great well- watered plains of dike, daremo, and other grasses. South of these areas, and merging with them, lies the great Haud plain, which extends far to the south, east, and west into Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland.
That part of the Haud which lies within the Protectorate varies in altitude from 2,000 ft. in the south to 4,000 or 5,000 ft. in the north. It is divided by the Nogal valley (which is generally known as the Nogal Plain) into the Northern, or Sorl, Haud and the Southern Haud, two approximately equal areas. The Nogal valley is a great limestone plain, some hundreds of feet lower in level than the Haud, which it crosses from near Burao to its southeast corner. It is watered by the Tug Der coming from the Ogo and by the Tug Darrero coming from the Warsangeli country, which unite to form the Nogal stream. The northern part of the plain forms a swamp in the rains, but furnishes excellent pasture afterwards. South of the swamp there is good grazing and some tree vegetation as far as about 47° E., south of which the country is arid and stony. The Northern Haud, comprising the southern parts of the Nogal and Warsangeli plateaux, is little known. It is believed to be an undulating limestone country, about 3,000 ft. in altitude, with many extensive, well- watered prairies. The Southern Haud is an undulating country, waterless after the first month of the dry season, but supplying very good grazing during the rains and browsing for camels at all times of the year. Parts of it are sandy desert, but most of it is wooded with thorn-bush intersected with vast grass plains, such as the Marar prairie near Hargeisa.
Coast
The coast is about 400 miles in length. From Loyi Ada, on the frontier of French Somaliland, it runs in a south-easterly direction to Bulhar, about 90 miles, thence east for about 40 miles to Berbera, and then generally east-north-east for about 270 miles to Bandar Ziada, near the frontier of Italian Somaliland. In a few places the shore is rocky, and there are insignificant bays and headlands, but generally it consists of a low, sandy, unbroken beach. There are no large headlands or gulfs, and the whole coast is exposed to winds from the north, east, and west; it is also encumbered in many places by shoals and reefs. There are a few islands near Zeila, and one, Mait (11° 13′ N. and 47° 13′ E.), in the east, on which a considerable quantity of guano is collected for export.
River System
Rivers fall from the northern scarp of the interior plateau into the Gulf of Aden, and from its southern slopes into the Indian Ocean. They are all intermittent and are dry during the greater part of the year, although the upper reaches of some which flow from the Warsangeli Mountains to the Gulf of Aden are believed to contain perennial water. In times of flood many of the rivers have a great volume of water.
(3) Climate
Very few meteorological observations have been made. The climate of the maritime zone is markedly different from that of the interior plateau, but in both zonei. it is dry and healthy, although hot.
Maritime Zone.—Here the climatic conditions are governed by the northeast monsoon, which blows from November to March, and by the southwest monsoon, which blows from May to September. The northeast monsoon is somewhat erratic in November and December, but is steady from January to March inclusive. During these last three months there is no rain, and this is the healthiest time of the year. In November and December come the heaviest rains, which are said to fall usually in somewhat light showers, with occasional thunderstorm rain. The total annual rainfall is only 3-4 inches (75—100 mm.) on the coast and 10-20 inches (254-508 mm.) in the south. In January, the coldest month, the maximum and minimum shade temperatures recorded are 89° F. (31-5° C.) and 72° F. (22° C.) respectively. In February the temperature begins to rise, and in April sometimes reaches its maximum height. In this month, after the departure of the northeast monsoon, there are calms and, late in the month, the southwest monsoon is ushered in by light rains. During this monsoon there is no rain except some light showers in July and, in some years, in September. The south-west-wind, the karif, blows furiously every day from midnight until 2 p.m. during July, August, and September, and is varied occasionally by a sea-breeze in the evening. May and September are said to be the hottest months; the highest recorded shade temperatures on the coast and in the interior of the maritime zone are 110° F. (43° C.) and 118° F. (48° C.) respectively, with corresponding minima of 80° F. (26-5° C.) and 82° F. (28° C.). October is a hot month with calms, very similar to April.
Interior Plateau.—The northeast monsoon does not penetrate to this region, and there is dry weather from mid-October to mid-March, especially in the last three months. The southwest monsoon begins in April and lasts until the end of September. It blows with some strength throughout this period in the north part of the zone, while farther to the south it is hardly felt except in July and August, when it blows very strongly. Throughout the plateau zone there are thunderstorms in March and April, and occasionally in May and June. In the northern part the rains begin in July, and gradually increase in strength, becoming heaviest in September; farther to the south there are heavy rains in August only. The rainfall in the north is said to vary from 10 to 20 inches (254—508 mm.) a year, and in the south to be somewhat less. All through the year the maximum and minimum shade temperatures are respectively about 10° F. (6° C.) and 20° or 30° F. (11° C. or 17° C.) less than in the coast region, except in the extreme south, where they are about the same.
(4) Sanitary Conditions
In the interior all seasons are equally healthy, and the climate is dry. The people are nomads, living entirely in the open air, eating comparatively little food, and abstaining entirely from alcohol. The struggle for life is so hard, however, that only the fittest survive. Cholera and dysentery, as well as malaria, are unknown, although in damp climates the Somali have been found to be very subject to malaria. On the other hand, owing to the scarcity of food, the nomad Somali show little power of resistance to disease and often fall victims to phthisis and pneumonia, of which many children die. Ophthalmia, skin diseases, and ulcers are common. African relapsing fever has been reported from Hargeisa, but there seems to be some doubt about its identification. Epidemics of small-pox occurred in 1889, 1904-5, and 1911-12, but it is not known how far they extended into the interior; travelers do not mention this disease as being prevalent. Syphilis, which is common on the coast, is said to be penetrating inland. Wounds and fractures are treated with much success by the natives. The Ishak tribes are said to be more successful than the Darods in their use of medicines. In almost all diseases counterirritation plays an important part in the treatment.
On the coast, where the climate is less healthy and diseases are imported from trading vessels, there is a good deal more sickness. The most unhealthy times of the year are May and September, the months immediately preceding and following the period of the hot-weather karif winds; the climate is at its best from November to February inclusive. Malaria, dysentery of a mild type, pneumonia, ulcers, and syphilis are the most common maladies. Cholera and beri-beri are both known, and epidemics of smallpox are not uncommon. Bubonic plague has not occurred. There are general hospitals at Berbera, Bulhar, and Zeila. The coast climate is not unhealthy for Europeans; they suffer chiefly from neurasthenia, general debility, and slight intermittent malaria.
(5) Race and Language
The Somalis probably came from Yemen and displaced the Hamitic race of Gallas, amalgamating with them in the process. Anthropologically, at the present day, they are held to be Hamitic; culturally, they are Semitized to a noticeable extent.
They themselves claim that the Ajis, or upper classes, as distinct from the Sabs, or outcasts, consist of two distinct races: the Asha tribes (who are subdivided into the Darods and the Ishaks) of Arab descent, and the Irir or Hawiya tribes of Galla descent. The Sab tribes, the Tomals, the Yebirs, and the Midgans, are a distinct race from the Somalis and are believed to be of Galla stock, although some hold that the Tomals are descended from Darod tribesmen who married Midgan women.
The Somalis of the Protectorate are surrounded by people of their own kindred, except where they come into contact with the Gallas of Abyssinia, who live in the Harrar Hills. The Sab tribes are scattered among them and are not confined to definite areas.
The Somali language is akin to the Galla tongue. It is not written, even the few educated Somalis writing in Arabic only. The Sab tribes all speak Somali, but the Midgans and Yebirs each have a language of their own, which they keep secret and about which very little is known.
(6) Population
The great majority of the population being nomad, there are few towns and villages. Of the coast towns only Zeila, Bulhar, and Berbera are of any importance. There are a number of villages along the Warsangeli coast, where the tribes are more settled than elsewhere. In the interior there are about half a dozen priests’ villages, of which Hargeisa (population about 2,000) is the most important.
No census has ever been taken, except of the foreigners in the three principal coast towns. In 1911, excluding Europeans and the army of occupation, these numbered less than 3,400. The native population is estimated to be 300,000, that is, about five per square mile. In the three principal coast towns there is a floating population of Somalis who come to trade during the winter. Their numbers, in the hot and the cold seasons respectively, are estimated as follows: at Berbera, 8,000 or 10,000 and 25,000 or 30,000; at Zeila, 5,000 and 7,000; at Bulhar, a few hundreds and 10,000.
As the Somalis are shepherds and inhabit a country in which the grazing conditions compel them to move their flocks according to the seasons of the year, there is a constant and regular coming and going of the tribes (such as the Aysa Musas and the Habr Gerhajis) from north to south and vice versa. Some (e. g. the Habr Awals) even cross the frontiers into Italian and Abyssinian territories, while others (e. g. the Ogaden) come north from these regions. Migrations of this sort occur all over the country, and each tribe has one strip of country (the whole of which is not necessarily in British territory) which it shares with one or more other tribes. The perpetuation of this state of affairs is assured by treaty with neighboring Powers, and the tribes jealously assert and defend their rights under it.
In the absence of census statistics nothing is known about the increase or decrease of the population. In 1906, it was surmised that, owing to the peaceful state of the country, the population was increasing, and it may be that on account of the recent unrest it has since decreased. It is certain that the hard life led by the Somalis leads to the death of many children, and it is probable that, even under peaceful conditions, the population can increase but slowly.
SOKOTRA
(1) Position
Sokotra is the most easterly, and by far the largest, of a group of four islands[1], under British protection, which lie in the Indian Ocean to the east-north-east of Cape Guardafui. These islands command the ocean trade-route from the Suez Canal to the East and to Australasia.
Sokotra is about 130 miles from Cape Guardafui and about 190 miles south-south-east of Ras Fartak, the nearest point on the Arabian coast. It lies between 12° 19′ and 12° 42′ north latitude and 53° 20′ and 54° 30′ east longitude. It has an extreme length from east to west of about 71 miles, an extreme breadth from north to south of about 22 miles, and an area of about 1,250 square miles.
(2) Surface and Coast
Surface
The greater part of the main island consists of a stony, arid, undulating limestone plateau, with an average altitude of about 1,200 ft. The plateau ends in abrupt cliffs falling in some places to the sea, and elsewhere to diluvial plains, with a length varying from 1 to 50 miles and a width of as much as 5 miles from the seashore. The plateau rises to Mount Haghier, a broad ridge of granitic rock, fertile and well-watered, situated on the north side of the island, east of its center. The ridge is some 20 miles long from east to west and 10 miles broad, with an extreme altitude of about 4,900 ft. Its crest is a line of jagged peaks, from which the ridge descends precipitously in numerous spurs towards the north coast, and more gently towards the south, where it merges into the limestone plateau. In the east the slopes are somewhat steep, while in the west they are easy. The upper part of the ridge is bare; lower down, it is wooded and intersected with rich pasture lands. It forms the water-parting of the eastern half of the island, and numerous perennial streams descend from it. On the north side there are three main streams, all flowing in deep channels. Of these the Wadi Dilal, the most westerly, enters the Bay of Tamarida, while the Wadi Iheli and the Wadi Diberni reach the sea farther east.
The limestone plateau covers all the rest of the island except three points in the west and one in the east, where there are outcrops of granitic rock and narrow belts of chalk formation. It has an undulating surface, several of the slopes, such as Jebel Shaab in the west and Jebel Muni and Jebel Felink in the east, rising 1,000 ft. or more above the neighboring surface. Moreover, it is cut up by a complicated system of narrow ravines with steep sides. Its eastern part is traversed by the perennial streams descending the southern slopes of Mount Haghier. Of these the most important, named from east to west, are the western branch of the Wadi Felink, the Wadi Arkas, the Wadi Faierho, the Wadi Aserho, and the Wadi Dihazhaz, all flowing in wide fertile valleys. East of these lies the eastern branch of the Wadi Felink, and west of them the Wadi Irek, a long watercourse, both of which flow through limestone country and are not perennial. West of the Wadi Irek, in the western half of the island, the water-parting lies near the south coast, and one main watercourse, the Wadi Ried, with numerous branches, drains the whole country to the north. There are also three minor watercourses which drain to the west. None of these are perennial. The whole of the limestone country is stony and arid, containing a few stunted trees and bushes and some poor grazing grounds.
The coastal plains consist of sand, gravel, and boulders. They are traversed by shallow watercourses, dry except during the rains, and most of them contain shallow lagoons of fresh or brackish water, some of which are surrounded by date-palms and some by mangrove trees. Their vegetation is scanty. During the rains, there is a fair growth of grass, suitable for grazing, but this dries up and leaves only stunted bushes and herbs. The largest of the coastal plains is the Naukad, which extends for nearly 50 miles along the center of the south coast and averages about 3 miles in width; much of its surface, especially in the west, is covered with drifting sand-dunes. Other important plains exist at Kalansiya on the west coast, and at Ghubbet Kurmeh and Tamarida Bay on the north coast. Ghubbet Kurmeh is more than 20 miles in length and about 2 miles in average width, while the Tamarida plain is 4 or 5 miles long and 3 or 4 miles wide.
Speaking generally, the Mount Haghier ridge and the eastern half of the island are fertile and wooded, and produce good pasturage. The rest of the island is more or less desolate, except at a few places such as Kalansiya.
Coast
The coast-line is over 180 miles in length. It consists of the plains already described, and of bold, rugged cliffs, whose altitude varies from about 200 ft. to over 1,900 ft. There are neither gulfs, estuaries, nor harbors. The south coast is almost unbroken, but on the north and west coasts there are several small bays and headlands. The most important bays are the Ghubbet Shaab and the Ghubbet Kalansiya on the west, and the Ghubbet Kurmeh and Tamarida Bay on the north; on the south the only bays are the Ghubbet Neh in the west and Bandar Assal in the east.
(3) Climate
No regular meteorological observations are available. What little is known about the climate is gathered from native reports, from general knowledge of the region, and from isolated facts collected by explorers. In common with the rest of this region the climate of Sokotra is governed by the north-east and the south-west monsoons, of which the first blows, ap¬ proximately, in November, December, and January, and the second in June, July, and August. Both seasons are believed to be rainy, and although one traveler was told by natives that there was no rain from November until June, it seems that most rain falls during the winter months. It is generally admitted that the driest season is from February to May inclusive. The existence of many perennial streams flowing from Mount Haghier suggests that the rainfall is considerable. During the winter there are heavy mists on Mount Haghier. On the north coast the wind blows in violent gusts during both monsoons (especially the northeast); in the southwest monsoon it is steady and less violent on the south coast. The temperature is said to be more equable than in the neighboring coastal region. The cool season lasts from October to March inclusive, January and February being the coolest months. From the few readings of the thermometer which have been recorded it appears that the shade temperature in the plains rises to about 70° F. (21° C.) during the cool months, and is about 10° F. (5-5° C.) higher in April and May; in the hills it is said to be about 9° F. (5° C.) cooler than in the plains.
(4) Sanitary Conditions
The island is said to be healthy, but there is a certain amount of malarial fever in the coastal plain of Tamarida. It is thought that the chief ailments of the natives arise from gastric troubles. It is stated by one authority that the natives make no use of plants for medicinal purposes, and that the remedy they employ chiefly is cauterization with a hot iron.
(5) Race and Language
Not much is known about the racial affinities of the Sokotrans. The inhabitants of the coastal region are described as of mixed Arab, Indian, and African blood, while the interior is occupied by Bedous (Bedouin), who are considered to be of three different races. The Karsh in, who occupy the western end of the island, claim Portuguese descent; the Momis, at the eastern end, claim Abyssinian descent; and the Kamhanes, in the Mount Haghier region, say that they are a mixture of the aboriginal inhabitants with Mahra Arabs. The Arabs say that the Sokotrans have Greek blood, and this is probably true. One authority distinguishes three different types among the Bedous. The first class are tall, broad-shouldered, with stout limbs and lean flanks, thin lips, and straight hair; the second are shorter in build, with round heads, thick lips, and curly hair; the third are of Semitic type, with lean limbs, small heads, long noses, thick lips, and straight hair.
The language of the Bedous, which is not written, is believed to be derived from that of the Mahra country in southern Arabia but has become so differentiated that the two peoples can scarcely understand one another. Sokotri has been less influenced by Arabic than has Mahri. Apparently, the coastal inhabitants use the Sokotri language, but some of them speak Arabic, which is unknown to the Bedous.
(6) Population
Estimates of the population of Sokotra range from 4,000 to 12,000. The Bedous live in their villages only for the latter half of the year, while the coastal inhabitants live in theirs all the year round. All the villages are small, consisting of from 5 to 10 houses; in many cases they are surrounded by groves of date-palms. They are much scattered in the more densely populated parts, those of the Bedous lying in the lower valleys of the eastern half of the island, and of the others along the northern and western coasts. One traveler was told that there were 400 villages in all, but this number is probably too high. There are three towns, two of which, Tamarida and Kadhup, are situated on the north coast between Ras Haulaf and Ras Taab, while the third, Kalansiya, is on the west coast. At Tamarida, where the Sultan has a palace, the population is estimated at 400; at the other two towns it is said to be smaller.
Nothing whatever is known about the increase or decrease of the population, nor about the birth and death rates. There are signs of abandoned cultivation in parts of the island, and it may be inferred that the population used to be more numerous than it now is. Unquestionably the island could support more inhabitants.
ISLANDS OF ABD EL-KURI AND THE BROTHERS
Of the other three islands off Cape Guardafui Abd el-Kuri, the most westerly, is about 20 miles long and 3J miles wide at its widest part, while the other two, known as The Brothers (Darzi and Samneh), are respectively 3 miles and 6| miles in length and 1 mile and 3 miles in width.
The Brothers are uninhabited, but a few people, who speak the Sokotri tongue, live on Abd el-Kuri. This island, of which very little is known, is composed of Archaean rocks, capped with limestone. It is hilly (the altitude of the highest point being about 1,600 ft.), absolutely uncultivated, and almost bare of vegetation; it contains very little water. The people, who have a considerable strain of negro blood, live chiefly on fish, molluses, and turtle; they are said to obtain rice and dates from Arab traders by barter.
II. POLITICAL HISTORY
BRITISH SOMALILAND
Chronological Summary
- 1840 Treaty with rulers of Tajura and Zeila.
- 1877 Conditional recognition of Egyptian jurisdiction in Somaliland.
- 1884-7 British Protectorate established.
- 1885 French Protectorate of Gulf of Tajura.
- 1889 Italian Somaliland delimited.
- 1897 Boundary with Abyssinia delimited.
- 1901-15 Wars with the Mullah.
- 1910 Withdrawal to coast.
- 1915 Interior reoccupied.
History
The Protectorate owes its origin to the capture and occupation of Aden by the authority of the Bombay Government in 1839. In the following year the East India Company made treaties with the Sultan of Tajura (now in French Somaliland) and the Governor of Zeila, binding each of them, in effect, not to enter into treaty relations with other Powers, and securing the cession of small islands off these two harbors. On September 7, 1877, an agreement was concluded between the British and Egyptian Governments, which recognized Egyptian jurisdiction on the Somali coast, subject to the following condition, embodied in Article V:
The present Agreement shall definitely come into operation so soon as His Imperial Majesty the,Sultan shall have given a formal assurance to Her Majesty’s Government that no portion of the territory of the Somali coast, a territory which, together with all other countries incorporated with Egypt and forming an integral part of the Empire, shall be recognized by His Imperial Majesty as a dependency of Egypt, or of the countries placed under His Highness’ hereditary rule, be ceded on any pretence whatever to a foreign Power.
This assurance was never given, and the agreement remained inoperative. The Egyptian Government, however, exercised de facto jurisdiction over the whole Somali coast till 1884, when, in consequence of the collapse of Egyptian authority in the Sudan, it was decided that the Egyptians should retire from the whole of the coast, between the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and Ras Hafun, on the Indian Ocean, south of Cape Guardafui. In communicating this decision to the Turkish Government, Lord Granville drew a clear distinction in political status between (1) the coast from the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb eastward as far as and including Zeila, over which Turkish sovereignty, though never formally admitted by the British Government, had not been practically disputed, and (2) the coast between Zeila and Ras Hafun, where Turkish claims to sovereignty had been repeatedly denied by the British Government. He intimated that, if the Turkish Government was prepared, on the withdrawal of the Egyptians, to maintain its authority over Tajura and Zeila, its rule would be recognized by the British Government as far as and including Zeila; eastward of Zeila, and especially at Berbera, which was the source of the chief supplies of Aden, the British Government would take its own measures for the preservation of order and the security of British interests.[2] As Turkey took no action beyond protesting that Berbera was unquestionably under Turkish sovereignty, troops were sent from Aden to Zeila. Between 1884 and 1886 treaties were made with the Somali tribes from Zeila eastwards, placing them under British protection, and on July 20, 1887, the Powers were officially notified, in accordance with the terms of the General Act of the Berlin Conference, that a British Protectorate had been established on this Somali coast, from Ras Jibuti on the southern coast of the Bay of Tajura to Bandar Ziada.
The French, in March 1862, had bought Obok in the Bay of Tajura from the Danakil chiefs; but they took no steps in the direction of occupation and exercise of sovereignty before 1883. In September 1884, the Sultan of Tajura ceded his country to France; and Great Britain, when officially notified by the French Government in February 1885, took no exception. The old treaty of 1840 was thus allowed to become obsolete; and by an exchange of notes on February 2-9, 1888, the French and British Governments agreed upon a boundary line between their Protectorates. By this agreement, which remains in force, the western frontier of the British Protectorate, as defined in 1887, was withdrawn from Ras Jibuti to Loyi Ada.
In 1889 the Italian Somaliland Protectorate or Protectorates came into existence, and were duly notified to the British Government. The boundary between the Italian and the British spheres of influence was drawn by an agreement of May 5, 1894, the Horn of Africa being included in the Italian Protectorate. Finally, the boundary between Abyssinia and British Somaliland was settled by treaty of May 14, 1897, with annexe of June 4, 1897.
About the end of the century a local Mahdi, known as the Mullah, appeared in the interior of the Protectorate and began to preach a Holy War, directed as much against the Abyssinians as against the British. In 1901 he was attacked both by the Abyssinians and by Somali levies under the British Consul-General or Commissioner, Col. Swayne, and was driven out of the British into the Italian sphere. In 1902 he reappeared, and an indecisive fight took place in Italian territory, the Somali levies having been by this time strengthened by a battalion of the King’s African Rifles. In 1903 there were further operations, in which Indian troops and some British and Boer mounted infantry took part, under the command of Brigadier-General Manning (now Sir William Manning), the Abyssinians also cooperating. There was some heavy fighting; one small detachment on the British side was annihilated, and another severely checked and forced to retreat. Further reinforcements were then sent. General Sir C. Egerton took command, and in January 1904 the dervishes were heavily defeated. European prestige being thus vindicated, the Italian Government on March 5, 1905, made an agreement with the Mullah, giving him and his following a fixed residence in Italian territory in touch with the sea, and embodying peace between him and the British, who allowed him the use of certain grazing grounds within their territory. This agreement was supplemented by another signed by representatives of the British Commissioner and the Mullah at Berbera on March 24, 1905, by an exchange of notes between the British and Italian Governments on April 12-May 26, 1905, and by a further exchange of notes between the two Governments on March 19, 1907.[3] In 1908 the Mullah became restive again; in 1909 it was found necessary to bring reinforcements into the Protectorate; and in 1910, in view of the constant expense caused by interminable raids and counter-raids, the British Government decided to withdraw from the interior to the coast —a policy which was strongly criticized in Parliament. The withdrawal led to intertribal fighting among the friendly tribes, and to encroachments by the Mullah. In 1912 a small corps of camel constabulary was raised, which in August 1913 suffered a severe reverse at the hands of the dervishes, the commander being killed. The military force of the Protectorate was then strengthened, and in November 1914 and February 1915 the dervishes were driven out of strongholds which they had occupied and heavily defeated. Writing on September 8, 1915, the Commissioner reported:
With the military occupation of the interior a complete transformation has been brought about in the internal condition of the country, and peace amongst the various friendly tribes within the protected area has been well established.[4]
Fresh recrudescence of trouble in 1919 led to a decisive defeat of the Mullah early in 1920.
SOKOTRA
The island of Sokotra seems to have been better known in classical and mediaeval times, or at least to have had more history, than is the case to-day. It was in past times a center of piracy; its connexion has always been with Arabia; and it is now in effect a dependency of Aden. The suzerain or owner of the island, the Sultan of Kishn or Keshin in Arabia, was in 1876 bound over by the Indian Government not to enter into relations with regard to the island with any foreign Power without the consent of Great Britain; and on April 23, 1886, he signed a treaty, formally placing the island under British protection.
III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
BRITISH SOMALILAND
(1) Religious
In religion, the Somalis are Sunni Mohammedans. Most of the Darod tribes of the Ashas belong to the Saleh sect, while most of the Ishaks are Shafi’i. Although fanatical, the people in the interior are not very strict in their religious observances, and they probably would be even less strict were it not for the visits they receive from wandering mullahs. On the coast the tribes are less lax, probably owing partly to their being less nomadic than those of the interior, and also by reason of their intercourse with Arabia. All the Sab tribes claim to be Mohammedans, and the Yebirs are strict in their observances; there is some doubt about the orthodoxy of the Midgans, but this seems to be unfounded.
(2) Political
The British Protectorate started as a dependency of Aden; and with Aden it has always been specially connected. Down to 1898 the government was in charge of the Resident at Aden, under the Bombay Government and therefore under the India Office. In that year it was transferred to the charge of the Foreign Office, and in 1905 to that of the Colonial Office. An Order in Council of October 7, 1899, established a system of jurisdiction for the Protectorate based on the Indian Codes.[5] By a later Order in Council of June 23, 1904, a Commissioner was substituted for a Consul-General as the chief authority in the Protectorate; and by a further Order in Council of January 8, 1906, it was provided that
The Commissioner may make Ordinances for the administration of Justice, the raising of revenue, and generally for the peace, order, and good government of all persons in the Protectorate.
The Commissioner was by this time acting under the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and under his authority and control he remains the lawgiver of the Protectorate, as well as the head of the administration.
It is satisfactory to note that the report on British Somaliland for the year 1916–17 can state that
The continued loyalty of the friendly Somalis, despite disturbing outside influences, the cessation of internal fighting within our sphere, the security of the caravan routes, the diminution of crimes of violence in the interior, the favorable trade conditions, and the resulting increase in Government revenue, are all sure indications of a more settled form of administration.[6]
(3) Educational
There are three Government native schools—one at each of the coast towns of Berbera, Bulhar, and Zeila —where a few Somali children are taught, together with the children of Indian and Arab traders.
IV. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
BRITISH SOMALILAND
(A) MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
(1) Internal
(a) Roads
There are no roads in British Somaliland in the European sense of the word. The only road which can be considered suitable for wheeled traffic was constructed during the operations against the Mullah in 1902–4, and runs from Berbera to Bihendula and on through the Sheikh Pass to Burao and Kirrit. From the pass there are two branches, one to Wadamago and the other to Bohotle. This is a very rough military road and in parts the going is very heavy.
Roads fit for wheeled traffic could be constructed on the maritime plain at no very great expense; farther inland they would probably become impassable during the wet season. The caravan routes from the interior are merely tracks, scarcely defined except through the bush country. Pack camels, however, afford such a plentiful and cheap means of transit that the want of roads is little felt.
(b) Railways
A railway has been projected and surveyed between Berbera and Harrar (276 miles), with a branch line from Argan to Burao (97 miles).
(2) External
(a) Ports
British Somaliland possesses in Berbera the only sheltered anchorage on the south side of the Gulf of Aden. The harbor lies within a low sandy spit extending westward for nearly 1| miles, and affords complete shelter from all but westerly winds. The Aden mail-boats and buggalows come alongside the pier off the European town, and ships of 2,000 to 3,000 tons can approach within 250 yds. in 30 ft. of water. At the head of the pier there is a depth of 10 ft. of water at high tide. The water-supply, which is slightly brackish, is brought in pipes from Dubar, 8 miles from the town. It is laid on to the pier, where there is a delivery of 237 gallons per hour, and to tanks in the town with a capacity of over 19,000 cubic feet.
Zeila and Bulhar are both very exposed ports. Large steamers have to anchor off them at some distance and trust to small coasting boats for loading or discharging cargo. During the south-west monsoons landing is difficult and sometimes impossible. Both places are very inadequately supplied with water.
(b) Shipping
The number of steamers which entered the ports of British Somaliland during the year 1914–15 was 263, with a tonnage of 70,000. The number of sailing vessels (native-owned dhows) was 1,340, with a tonnage of 18,000. The number of ships cleared would be about the same. Considerably more than half the tonnage entered the port of Berbera. The great majority of the ships were of British nationality.
The coasting trade between Aden and East African ports entirely ceases during the south-west monsoon from July to September, but throughout the year dhows from Berbera and the western ports of British Somaliland maintain a desultory trade.
(B) INDUSTRY
(1) Labor
As the physical conditions of the country are suited to pastoral pursuits rather than to agriculture, the people are mostly shepherds and therefore have had no opportunity for economic development. By some they are held to be lazy, but this opinion seems to be based only on the fact that they allow their women to work for them. When employed at the fiber factory, which was established a few years ago, they proved themselves to be capable and energetic. As stokers on steamships, they are found to be very useful, and fairly easy to manage. An authority who knows them well says that they are energetic and adaptable. They appear to be capable of considerable economic development.
Returns kept at the three chief coast towns show that there are about 3,000 emigrants from the country each year, and the same number of immigrants. These figures probably refer to natives who go to work at Aden and elsewhere, or to seek employment on steamers and trading dhows, returning to their homes after a comparatively brief absence. There is no permanent or considerable movement of people either outwards or inwards.
(2) Agriculture
(a) Products of Commercial Value
Agricultural products may be said at present to be quite insignificant. For his grain food, as well as for rice and dates, the Somali depends largely upon imports.
The following suggestions have been made by competent authorities as to the possible development of the country.
Coffee
It is suggested that the Golis range of mountains offers excellent prospects for the cultivation of coffee, the conditions being somewhat similar to those existing in the Harrar province of Abyssinia, which produces some of the finest coffee in the world.
Date-palms
There are said to be very good prospects for the cultivation of the date-palm on the coast ; this matter has been already taken in hand by the Government of the Protectorate.
Fiber
The country produces various types of fiber, but the only one which seems to offer any commercial prospects is that known as Sansevieria Ehrenbergii. This fiber has always been used by the Somalis in the manufacture of their camel ropes. Even when cleaned by hand, after the rough and ready native methods, it fetches a good price on the London market. It is classed with the best sisal hemp, and when properly cleaned should command from £34 to £35 per ton. The plant is very common throughout the country and the supply is practically unlimited. An attempt has already been made to exploit it, but owing to the trouble in the interior, the project had to be abandoned.
Forest Products
Myrrh is obtained from the didin tree (Balsamodendron myrrha), which is found in the eastern part of the coast region and also in the Warsangeli country and southwards thereof. There are two kinds of frankincense, loban dakar, which comes from the mohar (Boswellia Carteri), a tree common in the maritime mountains south of Berbera and in the Warsangeli and Mijjerten countries, and loban maidi, which is obtained from the yehar tree (Boswellia Frere- ana), found in the north-east of the country. The wood of the deyib (Juniperus procera), a large cedar, is suitable for making lead pencils; the tree is specially abundant on the top of the scarp of the interior plateau.
Tobacco
It is said that tobacco grows well both on the coast and in the interior. The locality most suitable for its growth would probably be the foothills of the Golis range.
Livestock
The great bulk of the wealth of Somaliland consists in live-stock belonging to the natives. There is good grazing in most parts of the country. The camel is by far the most important domestic animal. It is kept mainly for its milk, which is a principal food of the Somalis; and its flesh, which is highly esteemed by the natives, is occasionally eaten. The Somali camel is an excellent beast of burden; it can carry a load of 300 lb. for several successive days, traveling nine hours a day. The natives never ride their camels, though they would make good mounts.
There are considerable herds of cattle, which are confined to the Golis range and the neighboring hills. They are of the small-horned or hornless zebu variety, and give fair milk, but are not nearly such fine animals as the Abyssinian breed. They are kept to provide the ghee, or clarified butter, which is consumed in considerable quantities by the inhabitants of the coastal region. Live animals and ghee are exported to Aden, and hides are sent to the United States of America. In some years lack of water and of fodder during the dry season causes a good deal of mortality from starvation among the cattle. In all years this disability reduces the animals to poor condition, and on this account, they will never be able to compete in the production of meat with the Arussi cattle of Abyssinia.
Sheep are of the black-faced, fat-tailed variety, and constitute the chief food of the Somalis. They are also exported in considerable quantities for the use of the Aden garrison. They have little wool and are never shorn, but their skins, being thin, fetch a good price on the American market for glove manufacture.
Along with every flock of sheep a few goats are found; they give poor milk, and are of no particular value, although their flesh is eaten when mutton is not available. There is also a trade in goatskins, which are exported for the manufacture of glace kid shoes and for book-binding.
There are large numbers of hardy small ponies, especially in the east, but their numbers are said to have been diminished greatly by the constant fighting since 1900. They are used solely for riding.
Ostriches are almost domesticated in the interior, but their feathers are less valuable than those from the Cape.
(b) Irrigation
Agriculture is usually said to offer poor prospects owing to the scantiness of the water-supply. It may, however, be pointed out that the country is by no means waterless; numerous permanent springs exist, especially in the more mountainous parts, but as the water is only required for domestic needs it is commonly allowed to flow away and disappear beneath the surface. At Dubar in the maritime hills, hot springs exist, and the water from these, before it was required for the town of Berbera eight miles away, disappeared into the sand soon after it emerged from the rocks. To-day the water is collected in tanks and passed on in pipes to Berbera, where it supplies the entire population. In the same way the springs at Bi- hendula, Armaleh, Daraas, Shamaheleh, Upper Sheikh, and Harawa in the Gadabirsi country, to mention only a few, might easily be utilized, and at no very great cost. In localities less favored, dams could be made, especially in stock-raising areas such as the Arori and Toyo plains, and the great plains in the west and the Nogal valley. It is possible that with careful preservation and regulation of the existing water- supply, agricultural production, now virtually negligible, might attain considerable dimensions.
(3) Minerals
As regards the mineralogy of the country very little is known.
Coal
A sample of coal stated to have been obtained from a locality 53 miles east of Berbera and 30 miles south of Karam was submitted to the Imperial Institute for examination. They reported as follows: ‘ If the specimen now reported on is fairly representative of the coal obtainable from this deposit, the latter can be of no immediate value except for local use, as the coal could not compete even in the nearer Mediterranean and East African markets with better coal available from other sources. The deposit may, however, be of great economic value to Somaliland later on, and should be thoroughly examined.’
Gold
Statements are to be met with, especially in. older accounts of the country, to the effect that gold-fields exist in British Somaliland. It has been suggested that the gold-producing district, known to the ancient Ethiopian Empire as Sasu, may be located in the northeast corner of Somaliland, stretching southwards in the direction of Obbia in Italian Somaliland. Attempts have also been made to prove that the gold-bearing country known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt is identical with those parts of Somaliland. There is, however, no evidence of the existence of gold-fields in the country. The ranges of the Somali hinterland are Archaean gneiss, schists, and granites, but, notwithstanding their resemblance to those of Egypt, they do not, so far as is known, furnish auriferous deposits. Recent expeditions into the interior of Italian Somaliland, such as those of Bricchetti and Robecchi, make no reference to modern gold-washings or even to gold occurrences. It is true that alluvial gold has been found in British Somaliland; but on the whole it seems unlikely that the country possesses any rich deposits of the mineral.
Oil
The existence of mineral oil in the Protectorate has been investigated by the Colonial Office, whose expert reported that oil had been found about 28 miles south of Berbera. His report was considered to justify preliminary borings on a considerable scale.
Salt
It is stated that the salt-pans which exist behind the town of Karam can be worked at a profit. The exact commercial prospects of the undertaking are, however, not ascertainable at present. Samples of salt from various parts of Somaliland have been submitted to the Imperial Institute for examination. It was reported that refined salt of good quality could be obtained therefrom.
Lithographic stone is found at Eilo, and apparently elsewhere also; limestone is widely distributed; gypsum is found at Kirrit and many other places; lead, silver, cinnabar, and talc are reported from the Warsangeli country. Natural hot springs are known to exist in various places, but their waters have not been analyzed.
(C) COMMERCE
Exports and Imports
The following table shows the value of the exports and imports (excluding specie) of British Somaliland for recent years :
| Exports (rupees). | Imports (rupees). | |
| 1913- 14 | 3,248,945 | 3,573,287 |
| 1914- 15 | 2,643,395 | 3,043,250 |
| 1915- 16 | 2,858,947 | 3,176,170 |
Exports to the United Kingdom in 1914 consisted of raw hides (£8,410) and sheep-skins (£3,752). The trade of the country consists chiefly in the export of skins to Aden, India, and the United States. Imports from the United Kingdom in 1914 amounted in value to £1,422.
The exports include sheep and goats, cattle, skins and hides, ghee, ostrich feathers, guano, pearls, gums and resin, fiber and coffee from Harrar, and small quantities of gold ingots from Abyssinia (£12,000 worth in 1913-14).
The principal imports are textiles, rice, dates, and sugar.
The value of the trade between Abyssinia and the ports of British Somaliland during the years 1913-14 amounted to nearly £62,000. This trade has suffered considerable diminution in the last few years, owing partly to the unsatisfactory condition of political affairs in the interior. It is believed that with the restoration of order, it will very soon revive, as it will always be cheaper for the Somali tribes of Abyssinia, and particularly the Ogaden, to transport their goods on their own camels to the coast than to send them by road via Jibuti.
(D) FINANCE
(1) Public Finance
The Protectorate does not pay its own way, though it is relatively not a very heavy charge on the Exchequer. The budget figures are as follows:
The revenue of the Protectorate from all sources for 1915-16 amounted to £29,270, representing a deficit of £4,567 on the estimate, but an increase of £5,439 as compared with the previous year. The customs dues are the main source of revenue; they produced £26,021 in 1915-16. There is a 10 percent, ad valorem import and export duty at Berbera and Bulbar. The parliamentary grant in aid for 1915-16 amounted to £89,000.
The expenditure of the Protectorate has been as follows:
| £ | |
| 1913- 14 | 68,646 |
| 1914- 15 | 113,283 |
| 1915- 16 | 124,467 |
It may be mentioned that the recent large increase is due to the strengthening of the military forces in the country.
There is no public debt.
(2) Currency and Banking
The monetary unit in the Protectorate is the Indian rupee. The following Indian coins are also in circulation: pice, ½ anna, 1, 2, 4, and 8 annas. The British sovereign is accepted at the coast, the rate of exchange being Rs. 15. The value of the coin in circulation is estimated at Rs. 6,000,000. Bank of England notes also circulate, being payable on demand without discount. There are no banks in the Protectorate, but a private firm, Cowasji, Dinshaw Bros., accepts deposits from private individuals and cashes cheques drawn against them.
(3) Influence of Foreign Capital
There are seven trading houses established at Berbera and Bulhar—mostly Arab or Parsee firms—branches of houses in Aden. There are four trading houses in Zeila.
SOKOTRA
(A) MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
There are no harbors in Sokotra. Ivalansiya, where boats call when there is occasion, has an apology for a harbor or roadstead, facing Africa, and more or less sheltered from the north-east monsoon. No steamship lines call at the island; communication with Africa and Arabia is maintained by numerous dhows and catamarans.
There are many rough tracks, most of them leading towards Tamarida. Carriage is by porters and camels. There is no telegraph.
(B) INDUSTRY
(1) Native Occupations
The only industries practiced are the weaving of woolen cloth, some of which is exported, and the making by hand of rude unglazed pottery for local use. This work is performed by the women of the villages, without distinction of class, each household making its own pottery. The men are said to be lazy, but this opinion appears to be based on the fact that they do not cultivate more land, as they can provide themselves with a sufficiency of food and clothing without undertaking agricultural work. Fishing is their main occupation, but near their villages, they do a little cultivation and some of them leave the island for trade purposes. According to one traveler, slaves are employed in fertilizing the palm-trees, but other authorities do not mention them and nothing further is known about them.
(2) Agricultural and General Resources
The inhabitants cultivate vegetables, millet, &c., round their own dwellings, but the only field crop grown is bombe (Sorghum vulgare). There appears, however, to be but little of this, and although in Sokotra the crop requires watering, in only one case has irrigation been known to have been employed. A little tobacco and cotton is grown in the plains. The date- palm is cultivated extensively along the lower courses of all the perennial streams, and on the shores of most of the freshwater lagoons. It is valued not only for its fruit, but also for its wood, leaves, and fiber, which can be used for roof-beams, ropes, and sleeping mats. Owing to the lack of suitable soil, the scanty rainfall, and the deep channels of the perennial streams, which would make it difficult to install irrigation works, there is little scope for extending cultivation.
In ancient times the wealth of Sokotra lay in its export of the various varieties of myrrh, frankincense, aloes, and dragon’s blood gum. These are still valuable, but all can now be obtained elsewhere, and their export from Sokotra has practically ceased. There are many plants used locally for dyeing purposes.
The chief export from Sokotra is ghee, or clarified butter, which is of excellent quality and well-known in the towns and villages of the Arabian and African coasts. Immense herds of cattle are therefore maintained on the island, especially at the eastern end. They are small shorthorns, without humps and with a deep dewlap, and are excellent milkers. There is much rich pastureland towards the center of the island. There are a good many small sheep, generally black, with poor fleeces. There are no mules, horses, or dogs. A few fowls of an inferior kind are kept.
The camels, to which reference has already been made, are used as beasts of burden and also for milking. The breed is single-humped and probably Arabian in stock, but the animals are larger and finer than those of Arabia, and have developed a special faculty for hill-climbing. Even when laden they can use paths which in most countries would hardly be considered practicable for mules.
The forest resources of Sokotra, other than the gum-producing trees already referred to, are not considerable. The commonest tree is the euphorbia, and there is one species of box whose timber is reported to be valuable. The woods consist mainly of closely-growing shrubs and bushes, through which small trees are scattered, the crop being most dense in the valleys.
Nothing is known of any minerals of commercial utility.
AUTHORITIES
Historical
A standard book on the Somaliland Protectorate is British Somaliland, by Dr. Drake-Brockman, London, 1912. For both Somaliland and Sokotra, see The Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vol. i, 2nd ed., Oxford, 1906. There is an exhaustive article on Sokotra in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., in which authorities are given,
Economic
Forbes, H. O. (edited by). Natural History of Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri. Liverpool University, 1903.
Nineteenth Century (Magazine). London. June, 1897.
Scottish Geographical Magazine. Vol. XIV. Edinburgh, 1898.
Map
A map of the Somaliland Protectorate with Italian Somaliland, (G.S.G.S., No. 2924), on the scale of 1: 3,000,000, is published by the War Office. Corrected to 1919.
FOOTNOTES
[1] For the other islands see below, p. 18.
[2] See State Papers, 1884-5, vol. 76, pp. 674-84.
[3] See Hertslet’s Map of Africa by Treaty, ed. 1909, vol. iii, pp. 961-3 and 1120-2.
[4] Colonial Reports {Annual), No. 867, October 1915, p. 16.
[5] An earlier Order in Council of December 13, 1889, was repealed by one of January 11, 1900.
[6] Somaliland Report for 1916-17, Colonial Reports {Annual), No. 944, December 1917, p. 8.
