3. Conclusion
Archaeological evidence from Somaliland confirms that the Horn of Africa was an integral part of the Indian Ocean system, at least during the period comprised between the eleventh and sixteenth centuries. In this article, we have examined four sites on the coastal region of Berbera, a secondary, yet relevant port of entry of Asian imports into the Horn, which has allowed us to document the evolution of multicultural trade and its changing nature. The first regular contacts between locals and Islamic merchants from South Arabia around the eleventh century had an important social and ritual dimension, as shown by their taking place in religious and funerary spaces and associated with banqueting and feasting. From the thirteenth century onwards they took a more secular form and proper coastal fairs started to develop. Commerce increased noticeably during the time of the Adal Sultanate (1403–1577), with its apex probably between 1450 and 1525. The end of the involvement of Somaliland—and the Horn at large—in the Indian Ocean trade system came through a combination of events, including the Portuguese presence in the Red Sea, the conflict between Portugal and the Ottomans, the Adal-Ethiopia War (1529–1543), the Oromo invasions and the collapse of the Sultanate during the late sixteenth century. Imports in the Horn came massively from Asia and are similar to those detected along the Western Indian Ocean shores. There are some differences, however: no wares from East Africa have been detected so far, despite their presence in Arabian sites, and Yemen played an understandably prominent role (though declining) throughout the Middle Ages. Also, it took more time in Berbera for the trade to take off, as we have been unable until now to identify imports between the seventh and eleventh centuries. These, however, did arrive in Ethiopia from the late first millennium CE, probably through other route, such as Eritrea (Insoll, 1997). Finally, the comparison of coastal and inland sites in Somaliland suggests that the region was more of a transit zone than a destination, as few of the imports did remain in the country and, of these, only of a few types. It is likely that Berbera occupied a secondary place after Zeila in conveying imports into the Horn. Still, the question remains of why transit markets did not produce more visible wealth (monumental architecture and imported goods) in Somaliland since gateway communities tend to profit from their privileged position, as seen elsewhere in the Indian Ocean. We can hypothesize that nomadic habitus, ethos and cultural practices persisted in the Somali region that limited the development of urban life and led to the investment of the profits of trade in other ways, such as feasting and rituals.
Authorship statement
All persons who meet authorship criteria are listed as authors, and all authors certify that they have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for the content, including participation in the concept, design, analysis, writing, or revision of the manuscript. Furthermore, each author certifies that this material or similar material has not been and will not be submitted to or published in any other publication before its appearance in Archaeological Research in Asia. Authorship contributions.
Category 1
- Conception and design of study: Alfredo González-Ruibal.
- Acquisition of data: Alfredo González-Ruibal, Jorge de Torres Rodríguez, Manuel Antonio Franco Fernández, Candela Martínez Barrio, Pablo Gutiérrez de León.
- Analysis and/or interpretation of data: Alfredo González-Ruibal, Jorge de Torres Rodríguez, Manuel Antonio Franco Fernández, Candela Martínez Barrio, Pablo Gutiérrez de León.
Category 2
- Drafting the manuscript: Alfredo González-Ruibal.
- Rrevising the manuscript critically for important intellectual content: Alfredo González-Ruibal, Jorge de Torres Rodríguez, Manuel Antonio Franco Fernández, Candela Martínez Barrio, Pablo Gutiérrez de León.
Category 3
- Approval of the version of the manuscript to be published (the names of all authors must be listed): Alfredo González-Ruibal, Jorge de Torres Rodríguez, Manuel Antonio Franco Fernández, Candela Martínez Barrio, Pablo Gutiérrez de León.
Acknowledgments
Funding for this research was provided by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (projects HAR2013-48495-C2-1-P and PGC2018-099932-B-I00), a Marie Skłodowska Curie Individual Action (Grant agreement ID: 795442), and the Palarq Foundation. The authors want to thank Dr. Ahmed Jama Dualeh for his collaboration during fieldwork and the Department of Archaeology. Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Tourism, Somaliland for their continued support. The authors would also like to thank Derek Kennet, Stephennie Mulder, Yuni Sato, and Sheng Wei for their help in identifying pottery. Two anonymous referees offered comments that improved the article. Any errors remain our own.
Archaeological Research in Asia
